After Brown, private, all-white schools began popping up all over the South. The white Southern response to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was largely negative and resistant. Says he "did not try to leave the scene of the accident" that led to his arrest for driving while intoxicated. However, measures such as literacy tests and poll taxes were used by many states to continue the disenfranchisement of African-Americans and Jim Crow laws helped those same states to enforce segregation and condone race-based violence from groups like the Ku Klux Klan. On August 6, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson passed the Voting Rights Act. Look closely at the photo. In the five States where the Act had its greater impact, Negro voter registration has already more than doubled. His speech appears below. Separate, however, was rarely, if ever, equal. Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a civil-rights bill that prohibited discrimination in voting, education, employment, and other areas of American life. ", Says Beto ORourke "voted to shield MS-13 gang members from deportation.". Why would a group of people gather around President Johnson as he signed the Civil Rights Act? This law brought education into the forefront of the national assault on poverty and represented a landmark commitment to equal access to quality education (Jeffrey, 1978). This is historical material frozen in time. In Flawed Giant, Johnson biographer Robert Dallek writes that Johnson explained his decision to nominate Thurgood Marshall to the Supreme Court rather than a less famous black judge by saying, "when I appoint a nigger to the bench, I want everybody to know he's a nigger. He was also the greatest champion of racial equality to occupy the White House since Lincoln. President Lyndon B. Johnson supposedly made a crude racist remark about his party's voter base. The growing Civil Rights Movement in the United States played a major role in the act's passage and, before that, in combatting Jim Crow laws. Johnson set out to pass legislation of the late president and used his political power to do so. On July 2, 1964, just 5 months before the presidential elections, Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination in many areas of AMerican life and essentially ended segregation. Forty years ago today, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a bill that changed the face of America . The need for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 came from Jim Crow segregation, which had been in place since the end of Reconstruction. To understand why Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 one must understand his background. The Voting Rights Act made the U.S. government accountable to its black citizens and a true democracy for the first. ", Says Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said he wants Americas sons and daughters to go die in Ukraine., In Ohio, there are 75,000 acres of farmland, fertile farmland, that are all now being poured down with acid rain., Muslims by the millions are converting to Christianity.. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act as Martin Luther King Jr. and others look on in the East Room of the White House, July 2, 1964. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Under his leadership, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, as well as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Lyndon B Johnson for kids - The Civil Rights Act of 1964 Summary of the Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by Lyndon Johnson on July 2, 1964 ending the power of the Jim Crow laws racial segregation and discrimination. The most famous event of the Civil Rights Movement is the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Constantine, read more, Alarmed by the growing encroachment of whites settlers occupying Native American lands, the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh calls on all Native peoples to unite and resist. After signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law, President Lyndon B. Johnson said, " [W]e have just delivered the South to the Republican party for a long time to come." What did Johnson mean by this statement, and what evidence suggests that his predictions were at least partially correct? Due to various laws regarding employment and housing, the number of black people living in poverty was significantly higher than the number of white people; in this respect, the War on Poverty can be considered somewhat an extension of his work on civil rights. Many years passed with minimal action taken to enforce civil rights. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 also made it a federal crime to "by force or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone by reason of their race, color, religion or national origin." The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin illegal in the United States. The 1968 Civil Rights Act was a follow up to the. A sit-in at a lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, from February to July of 1960, ended segregation at one of the country's largest department stores, Woolworth's, garnering national attention. After a long battle in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the bill that outlawed Jim Crow segregation in publicly funded schools, transportation systems, and federal programs, as well as restaurants and other public places, was made the law of the land. Courtesy of Library of Congress. Johnson privately acknowledged that signing the Civil Rights Act would lose the Democrats the south for a generation, but he knew that it had to be done. The VRA prohibited discriminatory voting practices like literacy tests and poll taxes. While Johnson had inherited Kennedy's proposed Civil Rights Act of 1963, he made the legislative agenda his own. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 expanded the 14th and 15th amendments by banning racial discrimination in voting practices. For the first time African Americans had positions in the Cabinet and on the Supreme Court. Thoughthe Fair Housing Actnever fulfilled its promise to end residential segregation, it was another part of a massive effort to live up to the ideals America's founders only halfheartedly believed in -- a record surpassed only by Abraham Lincoln. Interview excerpts, "Last Word: Author Robert Caro on LBJ," Library of Congress blog, Feb. 15, 2013, Email, Eric Schultz, deputy press secretary, White House, April 10, 2014, Book, Means of Ascent, "Introduction," p. xvii, Robert A. Caro, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1990, Email, Betty K. Koed, associate historian, U.S. Senate, April 11, 2014. -OS . Chris has taught college history and has a doctorate in American history. Read more: Clifford Alexander, Jr., "Black Memoirs of the White House--LBJ," American Visions, February-March, 1995, 42-43. The Long Battle Towards the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Rise Up: The Movement That Changed America. Johnson saw his place in history as being directly related to the improvement of race relations in America and according to Alexander "he was a huge success.". ", --In his 1948 speech in Austin kicking off his Senate campaign, Johnson declared he was against Trumans attempt to end the poll tax because, Johnson said, "it is the province of the state to run its own elections." he'd drive to gas stations with one in his trunk and try to trick black attendants into opening it. The act was a response to the barriers that prevented African Americans from voting for nearly a century. In this speech, President Johnson uses words from Americas founding document like the Declaration of Independence (all men are created equal, all men have certain unalienable rights) and the Constitution (blessings of liberty). In 1961, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy resolved to make the White House a living museum by restoring the historic integrity of the Has the White House ever been renovated or changed? Buying into the stereotype that blacks were afraid of snakes (who isn't afraid of snakes?) 1 Cecil Stoughton's camera captured that morbid scene in black-and-white photographs that have become iconic images in American history. Ordinary citizens also felt this way and often acted in groups to enforce segregation. in History from Yale University. Finally, the act prohibited the unequal application of voting requirements. Our only agenda is to publish the truth so you can be an informed participant in democracy. The Civil Rights Act is considered by many historians as one of the most important measures enacted by the U.S. Congress in the 20th Century. Upon passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Johnson reportedly remarked that the Democratic Party had ''lost the South for a generation.'' The Civil Rights Act of 1964, more than 100 years after the end of the Civil War, sought to finally guarantee the equality of all races and creeds in the United States. President Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) speaks to the nation before signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, July 2, 1964. On March 15, 1965, President Johnson called upon Congress to create the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Political Beliefs But Johnson's congressional track record was not fully representative of his . "use strict";(function(){var insertion=document.getElementById("citation-access-date");var date=new Date().toLocaleDateString(undefined,{month:"long",day:"numeric",year:"numeric"});insertion.parentElement.replaceChild(document.createTextNode(date),insertion)})(); FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. With the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act, the segregationists would go to their graves knowing the cause they'd given their lives to had been betrayed,Frank Underwood style, by a man they believed to be one of their own. L.B.J. By the 1950s and 1960s, segregation had fully taken hold in almost every aspect of life, most notably in public schools, public transportation, and restaurants. The event is what ultimately pressured Kennedy into announcing the Civil Rights Act of 1963. The most sweeping civil rights legislation passed by Congress since the post-Civil WarReconstruction era, the Civil Rights Act prohibited racial discrimination in employment and education and outlawed racial segregation in public places such as schools, buses, parks and swimming pools. Be an old-shoe, old-hat kind of individual. Embedded video for President Lyndon Johnson: Remarks upon Signing the Civil Rights Bill, 1964, Revolution and the New Nation (1754-1820s), Development of the Industrial United States (1870-1900), Great Depression and World War II (1929-1945), Contemporary United States (1968 to the present), Votes for Women Digital Education Package, President Lyndon Johnson: Remarks upon Signing the Civil Rights Bill, 1964. Johnson also was against proposals against lynching "because the federal government," Johnson said, "has no more business enacting a law against one form of murder than against another. Says Beto ORourke voted "against body armor for Texas sheriffs patrolling the border. 36, No. 238 lessons. English: President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act as Martin Luther King, Jr., and others, look on. He signed it with the support of various leaders and groups in the Civil Rights Movement, including the NAACP, SNCC, Martin Luther King, Jr., and John Lewis. Digital IDs were given to residents in East Palestine, Ohio, to track long term health problems like difficulty breathing before the Feb. 3 train derailment. It was the single biggest piece of civil rights legislation since Reconstruction, nearly 100 years earlier. By throwing the full weight of the Presidency behind the movement for the first time, Johnson helped usher . 3. I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. After an 83-day debate, which filled 3,000 pages of Congressional Record, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 passed the Senate. he reportedly referred to the Civil Rights Act of 1957 as the "nigger bill" in more than one . Most recently, the Supreme Court upheld the rights of all people to be married, regardless of gender or sexual orientation. 1800 I Street NW IE 11 is not supported. After the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the number of these schools increased significantly in response to the federal order to desegregate. When Caro asked segregationist Georgia Democrat Herman Talmadge how he felt when Johnson, signing the Civil Rights Act, said"we shall overcome," Talmadge said "sick.". "He only signed the Civil Rights Act because he was forced to, as President. LBJ Champions the Civil Rights Act of 1964 En Espaol Summer 2004, Vol. The law's provisions created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to address race and sex discrimination in employment and a Community Relations Service to help local communities solve racial disputes; authorized . The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin illegal in the United States. "These Negroes, they're getting pretty uppity these days and that's a problem for us since they've got something now they never had before, the political pull to back up their uppityness. It was about parents being able to decide where to send their children to school., Says Ken Paxton "shut down the worlds largest human trafficking marketplace. The legacy of the Civil Rights Act and many other moments in our history of fighting for equality paved the way for that decision. According to Johnson biographer Robert Caro, Johnson would calibrate his pronunciations by region, using "nigra" with some southern legislators and "negra" with others. Fifty years ago today, President Lyndon Johnson went before the American people to announce the signing of one of the most important pieces of legislation in our history: the Civil Rights Act of 1964. When Republicans say they're the Party of Lincoln, they don't mean they're the party ofdeporting black people to West Africa, or the party ofopposing black suffrage, or the party ofallowing states the authority to bar freedmen from migrating there, all options Lincoln considered. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson just a few hours after House approval on July 2. Did any presidents live elsewhere during their administrations? He used these skills to help many of Eisenhower's legislative goals find success. Lyndon Johnson signs Civil Rights Act into law, with Maritn Luther King, Jr. direclty behind him. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act as Martin Luther King, Jr., and others, look on. Part of this act is commonly known as the Fair Housing Act and was meant as a followup to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. St. Petersburg, FL Text for H.R.230 - 118th Congress (2023-2024): To award a Congressional Gold Medal to Lyndon Baines Johnson, the 36th President of the United States whose visionary leadership secured passage of the landmark Voting Rights Act of 1965, Social Security Amendments Act (Medicare) of 1965, Civil Rights Act of 1964, Higher Education Act of 1965, and Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965. Read the latest blog posts from 1600 Pennsylvania Ave, Check out the most popular infographics and videos, View the photo of the day and other galleries, Tune in to White House events and statements as they happen, See the lineup of artists and performers at the White House, Eisenhower Executive Office Building Tour. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Because these were not public schools, they were not forced to integrate by the Brown ruling. President Lyndon B. Johnson signing the 1964 Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964. The pen was one of the pens President Lyndon B. Johnson used to sign the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Upon signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson reflected that Americans had begun their "long struggle for freedom" with the Declaration of Independence. Johnson used this public outrage to pass the Voting Rights Act, which eliminated the literacy test, one of the last vestiges of Jim Crow voting restrictions. It formally outlawed discrimination in public facilities and programs with federal funding. The Need for the Civil Rights Act; What is Civil Rights Act? It also eliminated voting restrictions like literacy tests. Molotovs action indicated that Cold War frictions between the United States and Russia were read more, On July 2, 1863, during the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Confederate General Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia attacks General George G. Meades Army of the Potomac at both Culps Hill and Little Round Top, but fails to move the Yankees from their read more, The Second Continental Congress, assembled in Philadelphia, formally adopts Richard Henry Lees resolution for independence from Great Britain. As the Civil Rights Act of 1964 stood waiting to be taken up in the Senate (it passed the House on February 10) the El Paso Times ran a special edition -- Profile of a President, March 15, 1964. Although that document had proclaimed that "all men are created equal," such freedom had eluded most Americans of African descent until the Thirteenth Amendment . Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. Lyndon B. Johnson. In the 1960 campaign, Johnson, as John F. Kennedy's running mate, was elected Vice President. The Civil Rights Act was later expanded to include provisionsfor the elderly, the disabled, and women in collegiate athletics. He grew up in rural poverty in Southwest Texas. That act banned discrimination on the basis of race, sex, or national origin in public places and enshrined into law the core ideals of the Civil . 1-86-NARA-NARA or 1-866-272-6272. Black students were forced to attend small schools with few teachers. 1-86-NARA-NARA or 1-866-272-6272. Of course Lyndon Baines Johnson's name quickly popped up. He appealed widely to Southern voters who still supported segregation. Place used White House, Washington, District of Columbia, United States, North and Central America Classification Memorabilia and Ephemera Movement Civil Rights Movement Type fountain pens Topic Civil rights Law Local and regional Politics Race . President Lyndon B Johnson discusses the Voting Rights Act with civil rights campaigner . Segregation on the basis of race, religion or national origin was banned in all public places, including parks, restaurants, churches, courthouses, theaters, sports arenas, and hotels. As Caro recalls, Johnson spent the late 1940s railing against the "hordes of barbaric yellow dwarves" in East Asia. That was the case for Johnson, who broke this pattern by steering passage of civil rights acts starting in 1957. During his time in the Senate, he honed the skills for political maneuvering that would help get the Civil Rights Act of 1964 passed. For the signing of the historic legislation, Johnson invited hundreds of guests to a televised ceremony in the White Houses East Room. In this photograph taken by White House photographer Cecil Stoughton, President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act in the East Room of the White House. In a world of wild talk and fake news, help us stand up for the facts. The most-significant piece of legislation passed in postwar America, the Civil Rights Act ended Jim Crow segregation, and the right of employers to discriminate on grounds of race. From the minutemen at Concord to the soldiers in Viet-Nam, each generation has been equal to that trust. What do you think President Johnson meant when he said that each generation has been equal to the trust of renewing and enlarging the meaning of freedom? American Presidents & Vice Presidents: Study Guide & Homework Help, Lyndon B. Johnson: Character Traits & Qualities, Psychological Research & Experimental Design, All Teacher Certification Test Prep Courses, Lyndon B. Jonson and the Civil Rights Act of 1964: Overview, The Background of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, The History of Lyndon B. Johnson and the Civil Rights Act, The Impact of Lyndon Johnson's Civil Rights Act of 1964, President Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression, The Election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt: Events and Timeline, Franklin Roosevelt's Second Term as President, The USS George H.W. Johnson initially won election to the U.S. House in 1937, outpacing nine other aspirants on April 10, 1937, to fill the seat opened up by the death of Rep. James P. Buchanan, according to Johnsons biographical timeline posted online by his presidential library. Recordings of the president's phone conversations reveal his tireless campaign to wrangle lawmakers in favor of the controversial bill. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed racial segregation in public accommodations including hotels, restaurants, theaters, and stores, and made employment discrimination illegal. READ MORE:The Long Battle Towards the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Johnson also sets out his plan for enforcing the law and asks citizens to remove injustices . Says Beto ORourke said hes grateful that people are burning or desecrating the American flag. Just pretend youre a goddamn piece of furniture.". In this photograph taken by White House photographer Cecil Stoughton, President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act in the East Room of the White House. Discuss reasons why this specific language would be included in the Civil Rights Act. The bill prohibited job discrimination on the basis of race, sex, color, religion, or national origin, ended segregation in public places, and the unequal application of voting requirements. The White House Celebrates a Washington Tradition. copyright 2003-2023 Study.com. ", Says Texas "high school graduation rates are at all-time highs.". By the time Johnson entered the Senate in 1948, however, he had moved strategically to the. The act outlawed segregation in businesses such as theaters, restaurants, and hotels. Both Presidents Kennedy and Johnson worked to see the Act written into law. According to historian C. Vann Woodward, the Mississippi volunteers faced ''1000 arrests, 35 shooting incidents, 30 buildings bombed, 35 churches burned, 80 people beaten, and at least six murdered.'' But our work is not complete. Lyndon Johnson signing the Civil Rights Act on July 2, 1964, as Martin Luther King Jr. looks on. Says Beto ORourke "voted against" Hurricane Harvey "tax relief. In addition to being the youngest ever Senate Minority Leader and then the Majority Leader, Lyndon B. Johnson was also President of the United States. 20006, Florida In 1807, the U.S. read more, On July 2, 1937, the Lockheed aircraft carrying American aviator Amelia Earhart and navigator Frederick Noonan is reported missing near Howland Island in the Pacific. The prediction was not too far off. The nation will be marking the 150th Anniversary of the Civil War. In the speech he said, "This is a proud triumph. John F. Kennedy had initially proposed this bill before he was assassinated. President Johnson also made two political appointmentsRobert Weaver as secretary of Housing and Urban Development and Thurgood Marshall as associate Supreme Court justice. By 1939, Lyndon Johnson was being called "the best New Dealer from Texas" by some on Capitol Hill. Lyndon B Johnson; This act was initially proposed by John F. Kennedy by was later signed officially by Lyndon B Johnson. Not only voting with the south to suppress civil rights bills but a political leader crafting the strategies which would be used to defeat such bills. On one level, its not surprising that anyone elected in Johnsons era from a former member-state of the Confederate States of America resisted civil-rights proposals into and past the 1950s. The date was July 2, 1964. The 10 years that followed saw great strides for the African American civil rights movement, as non-violent demonstrations won thousands of supporters to the cause. Working with leaders like MLK and the NAACP leadership, Kennedy had been performing political gymnastics publicly and privately to get this act passed. In 1937 ran for the House of Representatives in Texas on his New Deal platform. Memorable landmarks in the struggle included the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955sparked by the refusal of Alabama resident Rosa Parks to give up her seat on a city bus to a white passengerand the I Have a Dream speech by Martin Luther King Jr. at a rally of hundreds of thousands in Washington, D.C., in 1963. When Parker said he would, Johnson grew angry and said, "As long as you are black, and youre gonna be black till the day you die, no ones gonna call you by your goddamn name. Native Americans hold a significant place in White House history. The Civil Rights Movement fought against Jim Crow laws. Next On July 2, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law. (See detail in her email, here. Leffler, Warren K., "Lyndon Baines Johnson signing Civil Rights Bill," 11 April 1968. My fellow Americans: LBJ, a beer-swilling, blunt-speaking Texan, didn't shy from using what today we refer to as The N Word. Various lawsuits were filed in opposition to forced desegregation, claiming that Congress did not have that sort of authority over the American people. On July 2, 1964, Lyndon B Johnson sat down in front of an audience including luminaries like Martin Luther King, and signed the Civil Rights Act into law. Local officers were not eager to investigate their deaths, even resisting aid from federal authorities. The filibuster brought the bill and Senate to a near-stop as the debate raged. They found in him an . President Lyndon Johnson signed the bill on July 2, 1964. For an optimal experience visit our site on another browser. A reader guided us to excerpts of an interview with historian Robert Caro, who has written volumes on Johnsons life, presented on the Library of Congress blog Feb. 15, 2013. In the Civil Rights Act of 1965, we affirmed through law for every citizen in this land the most basic right of democracy--the right of a citizen to vote in an election in his country. After the assassination of President Kennedy later that same year, his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, continued to press Congress to pass comprehensive civil rights legislation. Fun Fact: One of the first pens went to King, leader of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), who called it one of his most cherished possessions. Yet many Americans do not enjoy those rights. On 22 November 1963, at approximately 2:38 p.m. (CST), Lyndon B. Johnson stood in the middle of Air Force One, raised his right hand, and inherited the agenda of an assassinated president. (LBJ Library) After Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, Johnson vowed to carry out his proposals for civil rights reform. Legal segregation had been fully stamped out, though the struggle against racism and other forms of discrimination continues today. He said, In our system the first and most vital of all our rights is the right to vote. But we shouldn't forget Johnson's racism, either. It banned discriminatory practices in employment. The date was February 10, 1964. This exhibit summarizes some of the . Why would President Johnson make these references in his speech? On June 2, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, which was the most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. Lyndon B Johnson for kids - Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Nor was it the kind of immature, frat-boy racism that Johnson eventually jettisoned. L.B.J he became president after John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22nd, 1963 and L.B.J took office the next day. 2023 Iowa Department of Cultural Affairs. The first significant blow that the Civil Rights Movement struck against Jim Crow was the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. "His experiences in rural Texas may have stretched his moral imagination. Justify your opinion. It also included provisions for black voter registration. Lyndon Johnson was a racist. On 2 July 1964, Johnson signed the new Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law with King and other civil rights leaders present. ", Next, we asked an expert in the offices of the U.S. Senate to check on Johnsons votes on civil rights measures as a lawmaker. Bush: History & Location, President George H.W. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the culmination of the work of many different people from different groups. Clifford Alexander, Jr., deputy counsel to the president and an African American, remembered President Johnson as a larger-than-life figure who was a tough but fair taskmaster. Within four years, black voter turnout had tripled, and the number of black voters in the South was almost as high as that of white voters. One famous figure who violently opposed desegregation was Alabama Governor George Wallace, who used his to support segregation. We believe that all men are entitled to the blessings of liberty. Onlookers include Martin Luther King, Jr., who is standing behind Johnson. After making it out of committee, they debated it for nine days. ", Then in 1957, Johnson would help get the "nigger bill" passed, known to most as the Civil Rights Act of 1957. Despite civil rights becoming law, it did not change attitudes in the South. In the Senate, Southern Democrats waged the longest filibuster in history, 75 days, in an attempt to kill the bill. Summary: On June 2, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, which was the most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. Lyndon B. Johnson being sworn as the president, November 22, 1963. As longtime Jet correspondent Simeon Booker wrote in his memoirShocks the Conscience, early in his presidency, Johnson once lectured Booker after he authored a critical article for Jet Magazine, telling Booker he should "thank" Johnson for all he'd done for black people. The civil-rights movement had the extraordinary figure of Lyndon Johnson. In Senate cloakrooms and staff meetings, Johnson was practically a connoisseur of the word.

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